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The challenge of rare earths lies not in scarcity but in the complexity of obtaining and refining them. Light rare earths occur in rocks, while medium and heavy ones exist in ionic form – hidden within clay particles, making extraction difficult.
China leads the global rare-earth chain after decades of technological refinement in extraction and separation.
Although rare earths are relatively abundant in the Earth's crust, they rarely occur in concentrated deposits. Producing high-purity metals requires multiple stages of beneficiation, chemical separation and metallurgical processing. This value chain – from mining and refining to material production and advanced manufacturing – demands high expertise, capital and environmental control, creating major entry barriers and strategic dependence on refining hubs.
A Gamma Ray Spectroscopy system is on display at the Safeguards Surveillance Laboratories during the 67th Annual Regular Session of the General Conference of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna, Austria, September 25, 2023. /VCG
Holmium (Ho) can be used in the manufacture of some permanent magnets. The radioactive but long-lived Ho is used in calibration of gamma-ray spectrometers. Holmium lasers are used in medical, dental and fiber-optical applications.
Common applications of erbium (Er) lasers in dentistry include ceramic cosmetic dentistry and removal of brackets in orthodontic braces. Erbium-doped optical silica-glass fibers are the active element in erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, which are widely used in optical communications.
The ytterbium (Yb) isotope has been used as a radiation source in portable X-ray machines. And the charged ytterbium ion is used by multiple academic groups and companies as the trapped-ion qubit for quantum computing.
Holmium-chromium-thulium triple-doped yttrium aluminium garnet is an active laser medium material with high efficiency. Because thulium (Tm) fluoresces with a blue color when exposed to ultraviolet light, thulium is put into euro banknotes as a measure against counterfeiting, as well as europium (Eu). Europium oxide is widely used as a red phosphor in television sets and fluorescent lamps.
Euro banknotes. /VCG
Other rare earth elements find equally diverse applications.
Rare-earth steel rails, Beijing, China, October 9, 2022. /VCG
Oriented rare-earth magnetic steel, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, south China, February 28, 2024. /VCG
Rare-earth permanent-magnet speed regulator, Beijing, China, October 9, 2022. /VCG
NdFeB permanent magnet, Shanghai, China, May 10, 2023. /VCG
Rare-earth flame-retardant materials, Shanghai, China, May 11, 2024. /VCG
Rare-earth polishing powder, Shanghai, China, May 10, 2023. /VCG
Rare-earth butadiene rubber workshop, Dongying, Shandong Province, east China, September 15, 2023. /VCG
For more:
(Cover: The rare-earth stockyard at the Rizhao Port in Shandong Province, east China. /VCG)
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